In 1793, the English envoy Lord McCartney arrived in China, seeking from the Chinese Emperor Qianlong an opening of trade. Replying to the request the Emperor wrote the King of England a message that read: "There is nothing we lack, as your principal envoy and others have themselves observed. We have never set much store on strange or indigenous objects, nor do we need any more of your country's manufactures."

    Since its unification more than 2,000 years ago, China has viewed itself as the center of culture in the world; hence, the Chinese name for China is Zhongguo, or "Middle Kingdom." In the past, few foreign manufactured goods could compare to those that were Chinese-made. China has long seen itself as an export nation: grudgingly importing raw materials, but seldom goods manufactured from outside.

    One of the reasons for this attitude is based on China's long agrarian tradition.

    China was one of the first civilizations to develop farming and most Chinese then, as now, live in rural farming communities. These communities, often separated from outside

    help by China's mountainous geography, were vulnerable to numerous natural disasters. In order to survive, they learned to band together forming communal, rather than individualistic societies. Thus, what is good for the village always trumps what is good

    for the individual and cooperation and obedience to the group is favored over independent thinkers and mavericks. This agrarian mindset prevails even among China's modern city dwellers.

    Though ruthlessly exploited by the ruling class, farmers were the producers of China's wealth and held a higher status over merchants who were thought to live parasitically off the labors of others. The prejudice that commerce and business are somewhat shady

    activities prevails, and not without good reason.

    Another aspect of China's agrarian culture that greatly influences Chinese business attitude is geography. Surrounded by rough terrain that in the past only supported pastoral economies, the sophisticated Chinese agrarian and urban culture looked down on pastoralists, and since they constituted their only experience with foreigners, the Chinese came to assume all foreigners were culturally inferior.

    During the West's industrial revolution, China admitted some Western products were

    superior and markets for these opened up briefly, but in recent years China has quickly closed the technology gap, and may well be in the lead again. The old attitude of "There is nothing we lack" is again prevalent in international trade with the result that buying

    Chinese products and services is relatively uncomplicated, while selling products or services to the Chinese can be as challenging as selling air conditioners to Eskimos.

    To market to Chinese one should keep in mind the frugal and mercenary buying habits of country folk the world over. Your product must be either absolutely essential, infinitely practical, or intrinsically valuable.

    Absolutely essential items include raw materials, commodities, and basic foodstuffs. Infinitely practical are those products such as farm and factory equipment, tools and parts, and medical equipment. Intrinsically valuable items are those that are guaranteed to never lose their value such as jewelry, precious metals, and finely crafted objets d'art.

    Until the average Chinese have a disposable income comparable to western consumers, products or services that appeal to vanity, sloth, and self indulgence are not likely to be well received.

    1793年，英國(guó)使節(jié)馬戛爾尼來(lái)到中國(guó)，請(qǐng)求乾隆皇帝開(kāi)放貿(mào)易。作為回應(yīng)，乾隆給英國(guó)國(guó)王書(shū)信一封，說(shuō)道，"天朝物產(chǎn)豐盈無(wú)所不有，原不借外夷貨物以通有無(wú)。"

    秦始皇統(tǒng)一中國(guó)之后的2000多年里，中國(guó)認(rèn)為自己是世界文化的中心。中國(guó)的字面解釋即為"中央的王國(guó)".以前的外國(guó)貨大部分不能和中國(guó)貨媲美，中國(guó)也一直把自己看做出口國(guó)：可以勉強(qiáng)進(jìn)口原材料，但是很少進(jìn)口制成品。

    這種態(tài)度的原因之一是中國(guó)長(zhǎng)期的農(nóng)耕傳統(tǒng)。中國(guó)是最古老的農(nóng)業(yè)文明之一，大部分中國(guó)人現(xiàn)在還是住在農(nóng)村。很多山里的農(nóng)村與世隔絕，自然災(zāi)害頻發(fā)，對(duì)它們的影響很大。為了生存，農(nóng)民組成了合作集體，沒(méi)有組成個(gè)人主義的社會(huì)。因此，村子的利益大于個(gè)人，合作和忠于集體重于獨(dú)立思考和標(biāo)新立異。這種農(nóng)耕思維在現(xiàn)代中國(guó)的城市居民中依然如此。

    農(nóng)民雖然受到統(tǒng)治階級(jí)的殘酷剝削，卻創(chuàng)造了中國(guó)的財(cái)富，地位也高于商人，因?yàn)樯倘吮豢醋鲆揽克�人勞�?dòng)的寄生蟲(chóng)，商業(yè)是見(jiàn)不得人的買(mǎi)賣(mài)。這種對(duì)商業(yè)的歧視十分盛行，其中不無(wú)道理。

    中國(guó)農(nóng)耕文化中，導(dǎo)致歧視商業(yè)的另外一個(gè)原因是地理因素。農(nóng)村和城市的周?chē)�都是荒涼的土地，只能發(fā)展游牧經(jīng)濟(jì)。先進(jìn)的農(nóng)耕文化和市井文化瞧不起游牧者，而中國(guó)人以前接觸的外國(guó)人都是游牧者，自然就以為外國(guó)人都是劣等民族了。

    西方工業(yè)革命期間，中國(guó)承認(rèn)某些外國(guó)貨更好，暫時(shí)打開(kāi)了市場(chǎng)，引入這些商品。但是最近幾年，中國(guó)迅速縮短了與西方的技術(shù)差距，可能還會(huì)再次成為領(lǐng)軍者。以前的"天朝物產(chǎn)豐盈無(wú)所不有"的態(tài)度又出現(xiàn)在國(guó)際貿(mào)易中，導(dǎo)致購(gòu)買(mǎi)中國(guó)的產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)相對(duì)簡(jiǎn)單，而賣(mài)產(chǎn)品和服務(wù)給中國(guó)變得十分困難，就像把空調(diào)賣(mài)給愛(ài)斯基摩人一樣。

    要讓中國(guó)人買(mǎi)東西，你應(yīng)該牢記中國(guó)人勤儉持家，精打細(xì)算的習(xí)慣。你的產(chǎn)品必須是絕對(duì)重要，或是永遠(yuǎn)實(shí)用，或者本身的價(jià)值很高。

    絕對(duì)重要的商品包括原材料、日用品和基本食物。永遠(yuǎn)實(shí)用的包括工農(nóng)業(yè)設(shè)備、工具和零件，以及醫(yī)療設(shè)備。本身價(jià)值很高的商品包括那些永遠(yuǎn)不會(huì)貶值的，比如珠寶、貴金屬和精美的藝術(shù)品。

    只有一般的中國(guó)人的可支配收入達(dá)到西方消費(fèi)者的水平，那些奢侈品或者奢華的服務(wù)才可能有市場(chǎng)。